Rush #01: Parallel Worlds: Evolution of Windows and PC CPUs

The PC platform is the most popular now, but how well do you know its history? Even if you (like me) have less than friendly feelings towards it, it won't hurt to know the most important moments of its development. This article is prepared by me based on materials from the PC press and is a brief overview of the evolution of the main components of the PC - OS Windows and CPU. It is necessary to know all this at least to have a fuller picture of the development of personal computers as a whole.

History of Windows

October 1981 - MS-DOS is released.

March 1983 - MS-DOS 2.0 with new features - support for HD, installable drivers. Already in January of this year, Apple releases LISA - the first computer with a graphical interface. The first MACs appeared a year later.

November 10, 1983 - Microsoft announces work on Windows.

November 20, 1985 - Windows 1.0 is released. Supports running multiple programs with switching between them. Windows cannot even overlap each other. Many limitations and shortcomings.

April 1987 - Microsoft announces the release of OS/2.

December 9, 1987 - Windows 2.0 - some new features, in particular, window overlapping is allowed.

May 22, 1990 - Windows 3.0 - contains new features but works unstably, with glitches.

April 6, 1992 - Windows 3.1 - more reliable than version 3.0.

May 24, 1993 - Windows NT.

November 8, 1993 - Windows 3.11.

March 1994 - Linux 1.0.

August 24, 1995 - Windows 95.

July 31, 1996 - Windows NT 4.0.

June 25, 1998 - Windows 98.

At the beginning of 1999, the release of Windows NT 5.0 (Windows 2000) was planned, but it is already known that the release of the system has been postponed to late 1999 or early 2000. It should be noted that initially Win NT was not a Microsoft product and was developed by a third-party company that was later acquired by Microsoft. From the inside, Win NT is completely different from the original versions of Windows, more stable and well-organized. The biggest drawback of the versions, including 4.0, is the incompatibility with many programs written for DOS, as they access hardware directly. Most games and old programs do not work in NT. The main advantage of the new version 5.0 will be compatibility with those programs.

History of central processors used in PC machines.

1969 - The first single-chip processor - 4004 appears. Its authors are Ted Hoff, Stanley Masor, Federico Faggin. The processor contained 45 instructions, a 4-bit data bus, and a 12-bit address bus. Frequency - 108 KHz, performance - 0.06 MIPS. Initially, the processor was intended for use in calculators.

1972 - The 8008 processor is released. An 8-bit data bus and a 16-bit address bus. Interrupt support appears.

1974 - The 8080 processor. Contains separate address and data buses. Operates at a frequency of 2 MHz, 0.64 MIPS.

1978 - 8086. Contains 29 thousand transistors, a 16-bit data bus, and a 20-bit address bus. With the help of a special segment register, it becomes possible to address up to 1 MB of memory. Frequency 5 - 10 MHz.

8088 - A simplified version of the 8086 processor, with an 8-bit (bit) external data bus.

1981 - IBM releases the first PC with 8088 and 8086 processors.

1982 - The first processors of the 86 series - 80286. 16-bit, 24-bit address bus, 12 MHz, 2.66 MIPS. The protected mode of virtual addressing appears, allowing addressing 16 MB of physical memory and 1 GB of virtual memory, and helps implement multitasking.

1985 - Fully 32-bit 80386. Contains 275 thousand transistors, operates at a frequency of up to 39 MHz, 11.4 MIPS, 4 GB of addressable memory, 64 TB of virtual.

1989 - Intel486 - 1.2 million transistors, up to 50 MHz, basic model - 20 MIPS, overclocked to 120 MHz, used RISC architecture concepts (but not the entire RISC architecture).

1993 - Pentium. The first processors had a frequency of 60 MHz, 100 MIPS. 32-bit architecture, memory (address) bus - 64 bits, 3.1 million transistors. Two independent instructions are executed per cycle. Two separate caches - for addresses and data. Max frequency - 200 MHz.

1995 - Pentium Pro - second-level cache memory up to 1 MB on a separate chip. It looks ahead up to 20 instructions and executes them based on their readiness, which nearly doubled performance, but the cost of the processor was very high.

1997 - Pentium MMX - Enhancements to speed up multimedia applications. FP registers (for floating-point calculations) were used for new MMX commands. No new registers were introduced to maintain compatibility with old software and operating systems that support multitasking. The new commands, of which there are 57, allow more efficient graphics processing, grouping 16-bit data into 64-bit, helping to create a fast mask.

May 1997 - Pentium II, combining the concepts of Pentium Pro and MMX. Contains 7.5 million transistors, operates at a frequency of 233-450 MHz.

Not so long ago (spring 1999), Intel released another processor in the Pentium series - Pentium III. Essentially, this is just a further development of the principles laid down in MMX. New commands and new registers appeared. But they require corresponding software. Non-optimized software specifically for Pentium III will run at the same speed as on Pentium II with the same clock frequency.

In 2000, a new processor - Merced is expected to appear, which will be built on a fully 64-bit architecture. At least operating systems will need to be completely redesigned to support the new processor.

In addition to Intel processors, CPUs from AMD and Cyrix are also quite common. The former also developed a set of additional commands for their K6-2 processor - 3Dnow!, similar to MMX commands. Intel also releases a budget version of Pentium - Celeron. The history of processor development for PCs is not as cloudless as it may seem at first glance. All new processors have to bear the burden of compatibility with previous models, as their performance growth is not so rapid as to allow emulating previous models in software. The latest models of processors from Intel are incompatible with old motherboards and require their replacement. The Merced processor, the hope and dream of all PC enthusiasts, may cause many problems for all software manufacturers, as Intel has finally decided to radically redesign the processor structure. Technologies like MMX only speed up the work of new programs written specifically for them and using new commands. Well, we live in a very interesting period, and there is not much time left until 2000, when much in the existing situation may change, and who knows which way... Have the dinosaurs of our century reached a dead end? ...

Contents of the publication: Rush #01

• AMIGA NEWS
  Amiga Inc works on Amiga OS 3.5 with enhancements like CD drive and PowerPC support. Split development for M68K and PPC processors. Delayed release to late 1999 or early 2000.
• AMIGA NEWS
  Description of the 'Fast JPEG 1.10' viewer for Amiga, focusing on its features, installation, and usage. It highlights advantages like fast processing without quality loss and provides user tips. Readers are encouraged to share their software experiences.
• AMIGA NEWS
  Basic programming for classic Amiga, discussing challenges and sharing knowledge in Amiga coding. Overview of Amiga graphics capabilities and processor features. Introduction to Amiga assembly language specifics.
• AMIGA NEWS
  Overview of events related to the Amiga platform from early to mid-1998. Highlights include new hardware, software releases, and notable company collaborations. Future updates and developments are scheduled for the next issue.
• AMIGA NEWS
  Collection of cheats and secrets for classic Amiga games compiled by Postcard Man. Readers encouraged to share their findings on complex games. Selection of tips and level codes provided for various games.
• AMIGA NEWS
  Discussion of Phase-5's graphics cards and Permedia 2 processor capabilities. Details on Permedia 2's 2D/3D acceleration and compatibility. Mention of GLINT Delta processors and comparison of prices and availability.
• AMIGA NEWS
  Analysis of Amiga's survival in the 90s, highlighting community efforts and technological advancements. Discussion on hardware improvements and software development. Encouragement for further exploration and learning about the Amiga platform.
• Spectrum Programming
  Explanation of a fast method for real-time 3D graphics on the ZX Spectrum. Introduces efficient rotation and deformation techniques for 3D objects. Emphasizes improvements over traditional methods with practical examples.
• Spectrum Programming - Ticklish Jim
  Discussion of combining sound effects with music for Spectrum's AY chip. Examples from development of 'CSC: Deja Vu' and technical challenges faced. Contains practical guide and code examples.
• Spectrum Programming
  Discussion on byte mirroring and background restoration in ZX Spectrum programming, with examples.
• Spectrum Programming
  Comprehensive guide for system programmers with practical tips for creating efficient and user-friendly software, including coding techniques, device compatibility, and program testing strategies.
• Spectrum Programming
  Advanced coding techniques and modern graphics methods for ZX Spectrum. Tips for optimizing graphical procedures and coding on assembly. Useful advice for programmers to improve performance and efficiency.
• The End
  Reflections on the creation of the first issue of the magazine 'Rush', its goals, audience, and future development.
• ZX-SOFT - Вячеслав Медноногов
  Development updates on Vyacheslav Mednoy's new game 'Black Raven II', including gameplay changes, new spell introductions, and performance improvements.
• ZX-SOFT
  Overview of new features in the updated commander from REAL software for ZX Spectrum, including file management, autodetection, and media viewing. Improvements in text, font, and music handling. Questions addressed regarding future updates.
• ZX-SOFT
  Debate on which demo deserved the top spot at Funtop'98: Forever by DR or Refresh by XTM. Discussions in the demoscene community highlight the clash between technical prowess and conceptual depth. Different opinions reflect on the evolution of demoscene preferences.
• Authors
  Acknowledgment of contributors and partners in creating Rush magazine. Detailed roles of each author and collaboration insights. Recognition of technical support and media partnerships.
• Virtual Specky
  Discussion on converting graphics from PC to Spectrum, featuring insights from various experts. Techniques for improving conversion quality and tools like Photoshop are detailed. Emphasis on post-conversion refinement in Spectrum graphics editors.
• Virtual Speccy
  Discussion on the CBSpeccy emulator for ZX-Spectrum on Amiga, highlighting its features, community opinions, and technical performance. Criticisms and praises for its emulation capabilities, particularly compared to PC emulators. Examination of potential improvements and community debates around version updates.
• Virtual Speccy
  FAQ on ZX-Spectrum emulation on PC, covering popular emulators and file formats. Instructions for using different emulators and managing file types like Hobeta and TR-DOS. Discussion on Russian ZX-oriented servers and resources for enthusiasts.
• Introduction
  Introduction to the Rush magazine, emphasizing creativity, progressive scene, and the goal to create a superior information source. The magazine seeks to gather promising groups and offer a unique perspective. Focuses on content and atmosphere, welcoming creators to contribute.
• Introduction - Grunge
  Introduction to Rush, a new scenemag for Speccy/Amiga enthusiasts, aims to provide quality content and news while encouraging reader feedback.
• Interview - Konex
  Interview with ANTARES group after FUNTOP-98. Discussion on their demos, challenges, and future plans. Insight into the group's formation and dynamics.
• Interview - Kvazar, DUX
  Interview with Alexander Seleznev (KVAZAR), discussing his history with computers, the state of the ZX Spectrum scene, and future plans.
• Interview - Kvazar
  Interview with Vitebsk group POWER on demo 'Crazy Love', development experiences, and future projects.
• Informatorium
  Exploration of a CD with emulators for various platforms, highlighting Spectrum. Details the content organization and diversity. Concludes with insights from the CD-ROM Project's Spectrum software collection.
• Informacrium
  Compilation of interesting and useful Internet addresses related to Amiga resources, including magazines, hardware manufacturers, and software companies.
• Informacrium - Viator
  Overview of existing and upcoming publications on the Amiga platform. Discussion of the availability and distribution challenges for Amiga literature. Appeal for collaboration with new publications.
• About the Magazine
  Discussion on creating a multi-platform magazine focusing on Spectrum, Amiga, and PC. Emphasis on broader understanding of computer scene. Encourage professionalism and adaptation to changing technology.
• Parallel Worlds
  Overview of the evolution of Windows OS and PC processors from 1981 to 2000. Development milestones of MS-DOS, Windows, Intel processors, and competition with AMD and Cyrix. Challenges in maintaining compatibility with new processor technologies.
• Parallel Worlds
  Overview of Macintosh models and their relevance in design and graphics fields, covering prices and specifications from 1997-1998. Discussion includes the evolution of Apple's hardware, notably the PowerMac series, and compares new G3 processors with PC counterparts. It highlights the resurgence of Macintosh post-crisis and its ongoing influence in the market.
• Development of the Spectrum - Slider
  The article discusses a new graphical extension for the ZX Spectrum that enhances color palettes without increasing resource demands. By using a modified flash signal, new colors are created without interfering with existing software compatibility. The article provides implementation details and addresses practical usage concerns.
• Development of Spectrum
  Connecting a CDOS modem to the 'Compact-128' computer by addressing keyboard port conflicts. Description of hardware modifications to solve the issue. Solution includes automatic blocking using a transistor inverter.
• Development of Spectrum - Ars
  Discussion on AZX-Monstrum 512K development, its hardware compatibility, processor options, and potential enhancements in graphics and OS.
• Development of SPECTRUM
  Discussion of Clive Sinclair's new computer platform, the ZX2000, designed to outperform PCs with enhanced speed, affordability, and battery efficiency.
• Development of Spectrum - Андрей Савичев
  Examination of the evolution and ongoing relevance of the Z80 processor, and its role in embedded systems. Comparison of Z80 with its successors, highlighting advantages like energy efficiency and command enhancements. Overview of integrated Z80-based CPUs and their peripherals.
• Advertisement
  This article is an advertisement for Scorpion products including hardware for ZX Spectrum and Amiga software, along with pricing and ordering details.
• Advertising
  Collection of advertisements for Amiga and ZX Spectrum hardware and software, with contact information for sellers and details about the new Amiga magazine subscription.
• Advertisement
  Advertisement for X-TRADE's General Sound music board. Includes pricing, technical details, and purchase instructions. Features a FAQ section and compatibility info.
• Meaning Without Meaning - Viator
  Philosophical reflections on existentialism, immortality, and human destiny. The narrative weaves through stories of ambition, the quest for eternal life, and a utopian downfall. A blend of introspection and speculative fiction.
• Scene vs Professionals
  Exploration of the demoscene's creativity versus commercial game development. Discussion of potential for professional-quality programs by scene members. Call for collaboration with leading scene groups.
• Scene Chronicle - Андрей Савичев
  Reflections on ZX Spectrum's enduring appeal, its community's resilience, and its potential resurgence in Russia.
• Scene Chronology
  Overview of the Rush group's activities, including past projects, current endeavors, and future plans, with emphasis on software development and gaming.
• Scene Chronicles
  The article discusses various ZX Spectrum scene news, including game releases, demoparties, and updates from developers and teams.
• Chronicles of the Scene
  The article discusses the FUNTOP'98 international computer art festival held in Moscow, highlighting key events, notable attendees, and the various competitions held during the event.
• Scene Chronia
  Discussion on Amiga scene development through collaboration, addressing user isolation and promoting network expansion.
• Shell Management
  Статья описывает управление оболочкой для ZX Spectrum и Amiga, включая клавиши и функции для навигации. Упоминаются особенности работы на Amiga с PAL монитором и предоставляется контакт для поддержки. Также отмечено, что текстовые файлы имеют стандартную MS-DOS кодировку.